Know Your Heretics

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Arius (256-336 A.D.) is the most famous heretic of Christian theology. He was born in Libya and died in Constantinople. Arius held a prominent position as a priest in the Church of Alexandria when he started a theological controversy in 318. Arius denied the eternal deity of Christ and his equality with the Father. He argued that Christ was created by the Father. Since the age of the Apostles, Jesus had always been considered divine by his followers, but his precise relation to the Godhead had not yet been defined. Thanks to Arius, the Trinitarian controversy regarding the status of Jesus Christ erupted.

ARIUS’ VIEW OF JESUS

Arius did not believe that the Father and the Son were of the same substance. Instead, he believed in the eternal functional and ontological subordination of the Son to the Father—that the Son was a lower being than the Father.According to Arius, the Son was created before time. In other words, he was not co-eternal with the Father. As he put it, “Before he was begotten or created or appointed or established, he did not exist; for he was not unbegotten” (Letter to Eusebius). Furthermore, the Son was not of one divine substance with the Father. He was rather of a similar substance with the Father (homoiousios). On this view, the divine qualities of the Son are given to him by the Father. Arius claimed that when the Scriptures speak of Jesus as the “Son” of God, it is merely a title of honor—a title given to Jesus as the one on whom the Father had lavished a special grace. Thus, Arius says, “He is not God truly, but by participation in grace…He too is called God in name only” (Early Christian Doctrines).

ORTHODOX RESPONSE

The theology of Arius became so controversial that Constantine intervened in 325, calling the Council of Nicaea. Athanasius, the leading defender of Nicene orthodoxy and the most prolific writer of orthodox Trinitarian doctrine in the fourth century, saw a major flaw in the writings of Arius and called his heresy the “forerunner of the Antichrist” (Athanasius, Or. Ar. 1:1).According to Athanasius, the Son was eternally begotten from the Father such that he can be said to be of the same essence (homoousios) with the Father: “The Son is other in kind and nature than the creatures, or rather belongs to the Father’s substance and is of the same nature as He.” (Athanasius, Contra Arianos, III).

WHY DOES ALL THIS MATTER?

There are some today who repeat Arius’ views. However, Jesus claimed to be God and the Christian tradition has held that there is an intimate connection between salvation and the deity of Christ. We are saved from God by God. Only a divine Savior can bear the weight of God’s wrath in atonement. Only Jesus as the God-man can satisfy the enormous debt and penalty caused by human sin against God. No mere human could bridge that gap. Only a divine Savior can pay the costly price of redeeming us from our bondage to sin and death. Only the God-man can conquer all his people’s enemies. Our salvation rests on the infinite capacities of our savior, Jesus Christ.

I find it difficult to believe that Christians were killing each other over the supposed difference of opinion between Arius and Athanasius. Mostly because it seems a pretty unchristian thing to do, and mainly because I can't imagine them getting that worked up over two opinions which can both quite easily, in light of the teachings of Jesus, be dismissed as being unimportant and nonsensical.

The opposing arguments generated between Arius and Athanasius might appear

unnecessarily divisive. Both arguments might appear to be at loggerheads with one another, but seem only to combine in a design which seeks to drive uncertainty and discord ....

On one hand Arius tells us Jesus is inferior to God, while Athanasius argues that the two are equal, but in-doing so, goes on to infer that the Holy Spirit must in someway be seperate from God and Jesus.

There was of course room for another opinion, and for all we know quite possibly wide-held at the time, that the beliefs of both Arius and Athanasius were unimportant, and nonsensical. I'd imagine that such an opinion at the time may well have been a dangerous one.

The Surprising Origins of the Trinity Doctrine

Few understand how the Trinity doctrine came to be accepted - several centuries after the Bible was completed! Yet its roots go back much farther in history. "And you shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free" (John 8:32). Most people assume that everything that bears the label "Christian" must have originated with Jesus Christ and His early followers. But this is definitely not the case. All we have to do is look at the words of Jesus Christ and His apostles to see that this is clearly not true.

The historical record shows that, just as Jesus and the New Testament writers foretold, various heretical ideas and teachers rose up from within the early Church and infiltrated it from without. Christ Himself warned His followers: "Take heed that no one deceives you. For many will come in My name . . . and will deceive many" (Matthew 24:4-5). You can read many similar warnings in other passages (such as Matthew 24:1; Acts 20:29-30; 2 Corinthians 11:13-15; 2 Timothy 4:2-4; 2 Peter 2:1-2; 1 John 2:18-19, 26; 4:1-3).

Barely two decades after Christ's death and resurrection, the apostle Paul wrote that many believers were already "turning away . . . to a different gospel" (Galatians 1:6). He wrote that he was forced to contend with "false apostles, deceitful workers" who were fraudulently "transforming themselves into apostles of Christ" (2 Corinthians 11:13). One of the major problems he had to deal with was "false brethren" (verse 26).

By late in the first century, as we see from 3 John 9-10, conditions had grown so dire that false ministers openly refused to receive representatives of the apostle John and were excommunicating true Christians from the Church!

Of this troubling period Edward Gibbon, the famed historian, wrote in his classic work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of a "dark cloud that hangs over the first age of the church" (1821, Vol. 2, p. 111).

It wasn't long before true servants of God became a marginalized and scattered minority among those calling themselves Christian. A very different religion, now compromised with many concepts and practices rooted in ancient paganism (such mixing of religious beliefs being known as syncretism, common in the Roman Empire at the time), took hold and transformed the faith founded by Jesus Christ.

Historian Jesse Hurlbut says of this time of transformation: "We name the last generation of the first century, from 68 to 100 A.D., 'The Age of Shadows,' partly because the gloom of persecution was over the church, but more especially because of all the periods in the [church's] history, it is the one about which we know the least. We have no longer the clear light of the Book of Acts to guide us; and no author of that age has filled the blank in the history . . .

"For fifty years after St. Paul's life a curtain hangs over the church, through which we strive vainly to look; and when at last it rises, about 120 A.D. with the writings of the earliest church fathers, we find a church in many aspects very different from that in the days of St. Peter and St. Paul" ( The Story of the Christian Church, 1970, p. 33).

This "very different" church would grow in power and influence, and within a few short centuries would come to dominate even the mighty Roman Empire!

By the second century, faithful members of the Church, Christ's "little flock" (Luke 12:32), had largely been scattered by waves of deadly persecution. They held firmly to the biblical truth about Jesus Christ and God the Father, though they were persecuted by the Roman authorities as well as those who professed Christianity but were in reality teaching "another Jesus" and a "different gospel" (2 Corinthians 11:4; Galatians 1:6-9).

Different ideas about Christ's divinity lead to conflict

This was the setting in which the doctrine of the Trinity emerged. In those early decades after Jesus Christ's ministry, death and resurrection, and spanning the next few centuries, various ideas sprang up as to His exact nature. Was He man? Was He God? Was He God appearing as a man? Was He an illusion? Was He a mere man who became God? Was He created by God the Father, or did He exist eternally with the Father?

All of these ideas had their proponents. The unity of belief of the original Church was lost as new beliefs, many borrowed or adapted from pagan religions, replaced the teachings of Jesus and the apostles.

Let us be clear that when it comes to the intellectual and theological debates in those early centuries that led to the formulation of the Trinity, the true Church was largely absent from the scene, having been driven underground. (See the chapter "The Rise of a Counterfeit Christianity " in our free booklet The Church Jesus Built for an overview of this critical period.).

For this reason, in that stormy period we often see debates not between truth and error, but between one error and a different error— a fact seldom recognized by many modern scholars yet critical for our understanding.

A classic example of this was the dispute over the nature of Christ that led the Roman emperor Constantine the Great to convene the Council of Nicaea (in modern-day western Turkey) in A.D. 325.

Constantine, although held by many to be the first "Christian" Roman Emperor, was actually a sun-worshiper who was only baptized on his deathbed. During his reign he had his eldest son and his wife murdered. He was also vehemently anti-Semitic, referring in one of his edicts to "the detestable Jewish crowd" and "the customs of these most wicked men"—customs that were in fact rooted in the Bible and practiced by Jesus and the apostles.

As emperor in a period of great tumult within the Roman Empire, Constantine was challenged with keeping the empire unified. He recognized the value of religion in uniting his empire. This was, in fact, one of his primary motivations in accepting and sanctioning the "Christian" religion (which, by this time, had drifted far from the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles and was Christian in name only).

But now Constantine faced a new challenge. Religion researcher Karen Armstrong explains in A History of God that "one of the first problems that had to be solved was the doctrine of God . . . a new danger arose from within which split Christians into bitterly warring camps" (1993, p. 106).

Debate over the nature of God at the Council of Nicaea

Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in the year 325 as much for political reasons—for unity in the empire—as religious ones. The primary issue at that time came to be known as the Arian controversy.

"In the hope of securing for his throne the support of the growing body of Christians he had shown them considerable favor and it was to his interest to have the church vigorous and united. The Arian controversy was threatening its unity and menacing its strength. He therefore undertook to put an end to the trouble. It was suggested to him, perhaps by the Spanish bishop Hosius, who was influential at court, that if a synod were to meet representing the whole church both east and west, it might be possible to restore harmony.

"Constantine himself of course neither knew nor cared anything about the matter in dispute but he was eager to bring the controversy to a close, and Hosius' advice appealed to him as sound" (Arthur Cushman McGiffert, A History of Christian Thought, 1954, Vol. 1, p. 258).

Arius, a priest from Alexandria, Egypt, taught that Christ, because He was the Son of God, must have had a beginning and therefore was a special creation of God. Further, if Jesus was the Son, the Father of necessity must be older.

Opposing the teachings of Arius was Athanasius, a deacon also from Alexandria. His view was an early form of Trinitarianism wherein the Father, Son and Holy Spirit were one but at the same time distinct from each other.

The decision as to which view the church council would accept was to a large extent arbitrary. Karen Armstrong explains in A History of God: "When the bishops gathered at Nicaea on May 20, 325, to resolve the crisis, very few would have shared Athanasius's view of Christ. Most held a position midway between Athanasius and Arius" (p. 110).

As emperor, Constantine was in the unusual position of deciding church doctrine even though he was not really a Christian. (The following year is when he had both his wife and son murdered, as previously mentioned).

Historian Henry Chadwick attests, "Constantine, like his father, worshipped the Unconquered Sun" ( The Early Church, 1993, p. 122). As to the emperor's embrace of Christianity, Chadwick admits, "His conversion should not be interpreted as an inward experience of grace . . . It was a military matter. His comprehension of Christian doctrine was never very clear" (p. 125).

Chadwick does say that Constantine's deathbed baptism itself "implies no doubt about his Christian belief," it being common for rulers to put off baptism to avoid accountability for things like torture and executing criminals (p. 127). But this justification doesn't really help the case for the emperor's conversion being genuine.

Norbert Brox, a professor of church history, confirms that Constantine was never actually a converted Christian: "Constantine did not experience any conversion; there are no signs of a change of faith in him. He never said of himself that he had turned to another god . . . At the time when he turned to Christianity, for him this was Sol Invictus (the victorious sun god)" ( A Concise History of the Early Church, 1996, p. 48).

When it came to the Nicene Council, The Encyclopaedia Britannica states: "Constantine himself presided, actively guiding the discussions, and personally proposed . . . the crucial formula expressing the relation of Christ to God in the creed issued by the council . . . Overawed by the emperor, the bishops, with two exceptions only, signed the creed, many of them much against their inclination" (1971 edition, Vol. 6, "Constantine," p. 386).

With the emperor's approval, the Council rejected the minority view of Arius and, having nothing definitive with which to replace it, approved the view of Athanasius—also a minority view. The church was left in the odd position of officially supporting, from that point forward, the decision made at Nicaea to endorse a belief held by only a minority of those attending.

The groundwork for official acceptance of the Trinity was now laid—but it took more than three centuries after Jesus Christ's death and resurrection for this unbiblical teaching to emerge!

Nicene decision didn't end the debate

The Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy. Karen Armstrong explains: "Athanasius managed to impose his theology on the delegates . . . with the emperor breathing down their necks . . .

"The show of agreement pleased Constantine, who had no understanding of the theological issues, but in fact there was no unanimity at Nicaea. After the council, the bishops went on teaching as they had before, and the Arian crisis continued for another sixty years. Arius and his followers fought back and managed to regain imperial favor. Athanasius was exiled no fewer than five times. It was very difficult to make his creed stick" (pp. 110-111).

The ongoing disagreements were at times violent and bloody. Of the aftermath of the Council of Nicaea, noted historian Will Durant writes, "Probably more Christians were slaughtered by Christians in these two years (342-3) than by all the persecutions of Christians by pagans in the history of Rome" ( The Story of Civilization, Vol. 4: The Age of Faith, 1950, p. 8). Atrociously, while claiming to be Christian many believers fought and slaughtered one another over their differing views of God!

Of the following decades, Professor Harold Brown, cited earlier, writes: "During the middle decades of this century, from 340 to 380, the history of doctrine looks more like the history of court and church intrigues and social unrest . . . The central doctrines hammered out in this period often appear to have been put through by intrigue or mob violence rather than by the common consent of Christendom led by the Holy Spirit" (p. 119).

Debate shifts to the nature of the Holy Spirit

Disagreements soon centered around another issue, the nature of the Holy Spirit. In that regard, the statement issued at the Council of Nicaea said simply, "We believe in the Holy Spirit." This "seemed to have been added to Athanasius's creed almost as an afterthought," writes Karen Armstrong. "People were confused about the Holy Spirit. Was it simply a synonym for God or was it something more?" (p. 115).

Professor Ryrie, also cited earlier,writes, "In the second half of the fourth century, three theologians from the province of Cappadocia in eastern Asia Minor [today central Turkey] gave definitive shape to the doctrine of the Trinity" (p. 65). They proposed an idea that was a step beyond Athanasius' view—that God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit were coequal and together in one being, yet also distinct from one another.

These men—Basil, bishop of Caesarea, his brother Gregory, bishop of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus—were all "trained in Greek philosophy" (Armstrong, p. 113), which no doubt affected their outlook and beliefs (see "Greek Philosophy's Influence on the Trinity Doctrine," beginning on page 14).

In their view, as Karen Armstrong explains, "the Trinity only made sense as a mystical or spiritual experience . . . It was not a logical or intellectual formulation but an imaginative paradigm that confounded reason. Gregory of Nazianzus made this clear when he explained that contemplation of the Three in One induced a profound and overwhelming emotion that confounded thought and intellectual clarity.

"'No sooner do I conceive of the One than I am illumined by the splendor of the Three; no sooner do I distinguish Three than I am carried back into the One. When I think of any of the Three, I think of him as the whole, and my eyes are filled, and the greater part of what I am thinking escapes me'" (p. 117). Little wonder that, as Armstrong concludes, "For many Western Christians . . . the Trinity is simply baffling" (ibid.).

Ongoing disputes lead to the Council of Constantinople

In the year 381, 44 years after Constantine's death, Emperor Theodosius the Great convened the Council of Constantinople (today Istanbul, Turkey) to resolve these disputes. Gregory of Nazianzus, recently appointed as archbishop of Constantinople, presided over the council and urged the adoption of his view of the Holy Spirit.

Historian Charles Freeman states: "Virtually nothing is known of the theological debates of the council of 381, but Gregory was certainly hoping to get some acceptance of his belief that the Spirit was consubstantial with the Father [meaning that the persons are of the same being, as substance in this context denotes individual quality].

"Whether he dealt with the matter clumsily or whether there was simply no chance of consensus, the 'Macedonians,' bishops who refused to accept the full divinity of the Holy Spirit, left the council . . . Typically, Gregory berated the bishops for preferring to have a majority rather than simply accepting 'the Divine Word' of the Trinity on his authority" (A.D. 381: Heretics, Pagans and the Dawn of the Monotheistic State, 2008, p. 96).

Gregory soon became ill and had to withdraw from the council. Who would preside now? "So it was that one Nectarius, an elderly city senator who had been a popular prefect in the city as a result of his patronage of the games, but who was still not a baptized Christian, was selected . . . Nectarius appeared to know no theology, and he had to be initiated into the required faith before being baptized and consecrated" (Freeman, pp. 97-98).

Bizarrely, a man who up to this point wasn't a Christian was appointed to preside over a major church council tasked with determining what it would teach regarding the nature of God!

The Trinity becomes official doctrine

The teaching of the three Cappadocian theologians "made it possible for the Council of Constantinople (381) to affirm the divinity of the Holy Spirit, which up to that point had nowhere been clearly stated, not even in Scripture" ( The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism, "God," p. 568).

The council adopted a statement that translates into English as, in part: "We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all ages . . . And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, who spoke by the prophets . . ." The statement also affirmed belief "in one holy, catholic [meaning in this context universal, whole or complete] and apostolic Church . . ."

With this declaration in 381, which would become known as the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, the Trinity as generally understood today became the official belief and teaching concerning the nature of God.

Theology professor Richard Hanson observes that a result of the council's decision "was to reduce the meanings of the word 'God' from a very large selection of alternatives to one only," such that "when Western man today says 'God' he means the one, sole exclusive [Trinitarian] God and nothing else" ( Studies in Christian Antiquity, 1985,pp. 243-244).

Thus, Emperor Theodosius—who himself had been baptized only a year before convening the council—was, like Constantine nearly six decades earlier, instrumental in establishing major church doctrine. As historian Charles Freeman notes: "It is important to remember that Theodosius had no theological background of his own and that he put in place as dogma a formula containing intractable philosophical problems of which he would have been unaware. In effect, the emperor's laws had silenced the debate when it was still unresolved" (p. 103).

Other beliefs about the nature of God banned

Now that a decision had been reached, Theodosius would tolerate no dissenting views. He issued his own edict that read: "We now order that all churches are to be handed over to the bishops who profess Father, Son and Holy Spirit of a single majesty, of the same glory, of one splendor, who establish no difference by sacrilegious separation, but (who affirm) the order of the Trinity by recognizing the Persons and uniting the Godhead" (quoted by Richard Rubenstein, When Jesus Became God, 1999, p. 223).

Another edict from Theodosius went further in demanding adherence to the new teaching: "Let us believe the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title of Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since, in our judgement, they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles [assemblies] the name of churches.

"They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation, and the second the punishment which our authority, in accordance with the will of Heaven, shall decide to inflict" (reproduced in Documents of the Christian Church, Henry Bettenson, editor, 1967, p. 22).

Thus we see that a teaching that was foreign to Jesus Christ, never taught by the apostles and unknown to the other biblical writers, was locked into place and the true biblical revelation about the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit was locked out. Any who disagreed were, in accordance with the edicts of the emperor and church authorities, branded heretics and dealt with accordingly.

Trinity doctrine decided by trial and error

This unusual chain of events is why theology professors Anthony and Richard Hanson would summarize the story in their book Reasonable Belief: A Survey of the Christian Faithby noting that the adoption of the Trinity doctrine came as a result of "a process of theological exploration which lasted at least three hundred years . . . In fact it was a process of trial and error (almost of hit and miss), in which the error was by no means all confined to the unorthodox . . . It would be foolish to represent the doctrine of the Holy Trinity as having been achieved by any other way" (1980, p. 172).

They then conclude: "This was a long, confused, process whereby different schools of thought in the Church worked out for themselves, and then tried to impose on others, their answer to the question, 'How divine is Jesus Christ?' . . . If ever there was a controversy decided by the method of trial and error, it was this one" (p. 175).

Anglican churchman and Oxford University lecturer K.E. Kirk revealingly writes of the adoption of the doctrine of the Trinity: "The theological and philosophical vindication of the divinity of the Spirit begins in the fourth century; we naturally turn to the writers of that period to discover what grounds they have for their belief. To our surprise, we are forced to admit that they have none . . .

"This failure of Christian theology .   .   . to produce logical justification of the cardinal point in its trinitarian doctrine is of the greatest possible significance. We are forced, even before turning to the question of the vindication of the doctrine by experience, to ask ourselves whether theology or philosophy has ever produced any reasons why its belief should be Trinitarian" ("The Evolution of the Doctrine of the Trinity," published inEssays on the Trinity and the Incarnation, A.E.J. Rawlinson, editor, 1928, pp. 221-222).

Why believe a teaching that isn't biblical?

This, in brief, is the amazing story of how the doctrine of the Trinity came to be introduced—and how those who refused to accept it came to be branded as heretics or unbelievers.

But should we really base our view of God on a doctrine that isn't spelled out in the Bible, that wasn't formalized until three centuries after the time of Jesus Christ and the apostles, that was debated and argued for decades (not to mention for centuries since), that was imposed by religious councils presided over by novices or nonbelievers and that was "decided by the method of trial and error"?

Of course not. We should instead look to the Word of God—not to ideas of men—to see how our Creator reveals Himself!

Tiahuanacu, the Mysterious City

Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco). Its Mystery Solved at Last!

By Gene D. Matlock

If Westerners would admit that many thousands of years ago, the world before Noah and the Great Flood was vastly different than it is now, many mysteries could be cleared up. One such mystery is the enigma of the ruins of Tiwanaku lying on the border of Bolivia and Perú. Between 10 to 20 thousand years ago, Tiwanaku was in its glory. But now, the massive fallen stones which were used to build this massive city lie scattered about, having at one time been tossed about just like popcorn in a skillet. The stones are so large that even today, it would be a technological marvel to take them from the mountainous quarry they were brought from, fifty miles away.

Lying close to Lake Titicaca, these ruins lie at approximately 13,000 feet above sea level. It appears certain that it was once a seaport. It still has the ruins of extensive docks lying on an earlier shoreline. In Tiwanaku's heyday, one of these docks could have accommodated hundreds of sea-going vessels!

Although Tiwanaku is far from being adequately excavated, estimates are that it could have had between 40,000 and 100,00 inhabitants.

Lake Titicaca is the highest navigable lake in the world. It was at one time much larger than it is now. Its shoreline once extended to Tiwanaku.

Tiwanaku appears to derive from Sanskrit: Diva(heaven; sky) plus Naka (mountain). Its original name also could have been Deva (heavenly; deity; god) plusNaga (serpent). The word Tiwa could also have derived from the ancient Siberian-Turkic nation of Tannu-Tiva, a.k.a. Tannu-Tuva (the biblical Tubal). Even there, Tiva, Teva, or Tuva referred to the sun or the sky.

If the natives living near Tiwanaku gave the name Kalasaya to the mound atop which lies the impressive Portal of the Sun, we have further proof of a previous Hindu-Turkic presence in Tiwanaku. This word is similar to the Sanskrit Kailasa, the mountain of Kubera and Shiva (Meru).

In Sanskrit, Eka-apana means "Principal" or leading market, trade, or commercial center. Was the Akapanapyramid a big trading center?

There is evidence that Titicaca was once a saltwater sea. Its shoreline is littered with millions of fossilized seashells. The marine fishes and seahorses in the lake are all oceanic types found only in salt water.

Researchers are convinced that these 3 miles high ruins once lay at sea level. Therefore, an incredibly devastating earthquake could have torn the city asunder, lifting Tiwanaku and the lake to where they are now. How can this be proven? The answer lies in the name of Lake Titicaca itself-linguistic proof no one can deny and in two of the most ancient languages in the world: Sanskrit and Tamil. The word Titicaca has no meaning any of the Andean languages.

In Sanskrit, the word GaGga, (GAHG-gah) means "river," but not just any river. It means a river as sacred as or related to the Ganges.

In Tamil, it is KaGkai (KAHG-ky), meaning the same as the above.

In Sanskrit, Diti was the wife of the god Kasyapa (sea tortoise). Titi is the Tamil equivalent. Therefore, Titikagkai=Ditigagga=Titicaca.

What was Titicaca at one time? Has it always been just a freshwater lake with saltwater fauna? Or was it a great and sacred river flowing at nearly sea level, and leading to the sea?

See also Tiahuanaco: Gateway to the Gods - previous Viewzone article.

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Buckminsterfullerene Triangulated by Bill Lauritzen

Visual models and verbal phrases to describe the Buckminsterfullerne molecule such as "truncated icosahedron," "soccer-ball", and "pentagons and hexagons" are discussed in reference to the stability of the molecule and are shown to be inadequate to explain such stability in light of principles discovered by Buckminster Fuller and experiential evidence presented by the author using the low-technology materials of string and straws and methods devised by Fuller. A new triangulated visual model is presented that accounts for the stability of the molecule. Reasons are offered for the fact that chemists and others have failed to discover and use the truer model.

 Buckminsterfullerene Triangulated

 It is fitting that a molecule be named in honor of R. Buckminster Fuller. And Richard E. Smalley and Harry Kroto should be congratulated for discovering it. However, it has been described as being made up of "12 pentagons ... 20 hexagons."(1) Or "soccer-ball shaped".(2) Or labeled a "truncated icosahedron."(3) Many other authors and editors have referred to it using these terms and images.(4) All of these terms and images are misleading because none of them show the triangulation which gives the molecule its stability. Buckminster Fuller's geodesic domes, although made up of pentagons and hexagons, are all triangulated. The Buckminsterfullerene is also triangulated, but this is never mentioned in articles, (except in references to geodesic domes) and it is not clearly evident from stick models or computer images. It is only seen when we go directly to a photograph of the molecule: a picture generated from x-ray diffraction. It can also be seen using proper models made from straws and string.

 Part of R. Buckminster Fuller's genius was in realizing that the basic structural unit of the universe is the triangle. He says, "the triangle is the only structure."5 Notice the word only. Also in the posthumously published book he says, "The triangle is the only flex-cornered polygon that holds its shape: ergo, it alone accounts for all structural shaping in the Universe."(6) He suggests demonstrating this by making a necklace.(7) Take three straws and run a string through them and tie it off to form a triangle. Now do the same with four straws to form a square. The triangle is stable. The square collapses. A pentagon and hexagon also collapse. Only a triangle, of all polygons, is stable. And only structures made from triangles are inherently stable. (Even in Fuller's tensional integrity, or tensegrity, structures, in which the triangulation is not always so apparent, the stability results from tensional triangles.) A string necklace can also make polyhedrons. A tetrahedron, composed of four triangular faces, is a stable structure. A cube collapses. A pentagonal dodecahedron also collapses. Hexagons and above cannot be made into closed, regular shapes. However, if we continue to build using only triangles, we can progress beyond the tetrahedron. For example, the next shape beyond a tetrahedron is an octahedron. After that we can make an icosahedron.

 The "truncated icosahedron" is the untriangulated structure that is shown in popular articles as well as scientific journals as being a Buckminsterfullerene. It is formed by taking a icosahedron and slicing off each vertex one third of the way down the edge. I applied the "necklace test" to this structure. It collapsed upon itself. I then triangulated all the hexagons and pentagons, and I now had a stable structure. Comparing the two shows the surprising difference. Curl and Smalley say that it is the symmetrical, closed, structure of C-60, the "truncated icosahedron" shape, that creates its extraordinary stability.8 But, according to principles uncovered by R. Buckminster Fuller, and by my verification, it is the triangulation of the carbon molecules that causes the stability. Chemists use clay and sticks to form models of molecules. The resiliency of clay tends to mask the triangle's unique property. Chemists also use computers to form molecules. The artificiality of the computer again masks the triangle's property. In addition, the computer images tend show the carbon bonds as lines, whereas in the x-ray diffraction generated image we see the more realistic, carbon-triangulated version. Perhaps these reason help explain why the triangulation of the Buckyball has not been pointed out and properly emphasized.

 Another well-known carbon substance that is made from triangles (formed into tetrahedrons) is diamond. Although textbooks acknowledge the tetrahedral (and thus triangular) shape of diamonds, graphite is not shown to be triangulated although I would suspect that it is. This failure to show the proper triangulation of graphite would also help explain the misconception regarding the Fullerene. On a more fundamental level, it is probably the lack of knowledge of the stability of the triangle versus the square that causes the misconception. We should do away with "truncated icosahedron," "twelve pentagons and twenty hexagons," and "soccerball" as words to describe the Buckminsterfullerene and as images to model it. "Triangulated soccerball" would be OK. "Twelve pentagons and twenty hexagons that have been triangulated" would be OK. A "geodesic sphere" is OK because geodesic structures are triangulated. Remember, the triangle is the only structure. But don't believe me. Tri it.

 NOTES: 1. Robert F. Curl and Richard E. Smalley, "Fullerenes," Scientific American, Oct. 1991, p. 54. 2. Ibid., p. 54. 3. Ibid., p. 58. 4. Just one example out of dozens is Volume 140 of Science News, August 24, 1991, p.120, on which we see a truncated icosahedron. 5. R. Buckminster Fuller, Synergetics Vol. 1, (New York, MacMillian, 1975) p. 319. 6. R. Buckminster Fuller, Comsmography, (New York, MacMillian, 1992) p. 47. 7. R. Buckminster Fuller, Synergetics Vol. 1, (New York, MacMillian, 1975) p. 317. 8. Curl and Smalley, op. cit., p.58. Home Articles Email Lauritzen Buy a Book About Lauritzen Copyright © 2000-8. All Rights Reserved.

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Expanding Consciousness in a Living Systems Universe

EXPANDING CONSCIOUSNESS IN A LIVING SYSTEMS UNIVERSE
Ralph Metzner, Ph.D.

California Institute of Integral Studies


The word consciousness is derived from the Latin con-scire - “with-knowing”. We can ask “knowing-with” - what? A relational, or systems, view is implicit in this etymology: pointing to the relation between subject and object, between the knower and the known. Conscious knowing (con-scire) is knowing with knowing that you know. This can be contrasted to the unconscious knowing involved in my knowing how to grow hair, or skin cells over a wound; and my knowing how to tie my shoelaces, or ride a bicycle, which has become a kind of unconscious or automated knowing.

Historically there have been two main metaphors for consciousness, one spatial or topographical, and one temporal or developmental. The topographical metaphor is expressed in conceptions of consciousness as like a territory, a terrain, or a field, a “state” one can enter into or leave; or like empty space, as in Buddhist psychology. The spatial metaphor, can lead to a certain kind of fixity in one’s perception or worldview, a craving for stability and persistence, and anxiety about change. From this point of view, ordinary waking consciousness is the preferred state, and “altered states” are viewed with some anxiety and suspicion, -- as if an “altered” state is automatically abnormal. In many ways this is the attitude of mainstream Western thought toward alterations of consciousness—even the rich diversity of dreamlife and the changed awareness possible with introspection, psychotherapy or meditation is regarded with suspicion by the dominant extraverted worldview.

The temporal metaphor for consciousness is seen in conceptions such as William James’ “stream of thought”, or the stream of awareness, or the “flow experience”, as well as in developmental theories of consciousness going through various stages. Historically, we see the temporal metaphor emphasized in the thought of the pre-Socratic philosophers Thales and Heraclitus, in Buddhist teachings of impermanence (anicca) , and in the Taoist emphasis on the flows and eddies of water as the basic patterns of all life. From this point of view, wave-like fluctuations of consciousness are regarded as natural and inevitable, and health, well-being and creativity are linked to one’s ability to tune into and utilize the naturally occurring, and the “artificially” induced, modulations of consciousness.

According to Immanuel Kant, “space” and “time” are the a priori categories of all thinking. It seems appropriate that these are the two most common metaphors we have come up with in our reflections on consciousness. Perhaps the most balanced way to think about consciousness would be to keep both the spatial and the temporal metaphors in mind. We can recognize and identify the structural, persistent features of the perceived world we are “in” at any given moment, and we can be aware of the ever-changing, flowing stream of phenomena in which we are immersed. Heraclitus, in addition to the oft-quoted “you cannot step twice into the same river”, expanded on the metaphor by also saying that “when we step in the same river, the flowing water is always different and new.”

The definition of consciousness proposed by the Russian mathematician and physicist Victor Nalimov, in his book Realms of the Human Unconscious, is one that integrates both the topographical and the temporal aspect: he calls it a “semantic continuum”, i.e. a “continuum of meaning”. A continuum is defined as a “continuous extent, succession or whole”, which can be divided mentally into parts, but also considered as a whole. A continuum of meaning, like the sensorium of sense perception, conveys something of the elusive quality of consciousness, -- both stable and mobile, integrative and differentiated.

In contrast to cancient, Eastern and indigenous views, Western science in general and psychology in particular has never been comfortable with the study of the subjective side of life, with qualities of experience, purposes, intuitions, altered states or spiritual aspirations. Under the sway of the Newtonian-Cartesian mind-matter dichotomy, consciousness and experience were seen as belonging to the realm of religion, and science agreed to stay out of it. Later, as the ideological hold of the Church diminished and the materialist paradigm became paramount, consciousness and all subjective experience became even more firmly banished from scientific discourse.

In the 19th century, the German social philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey attempted to establish the “mental sciences” (Geisteswissenschaften), on an equivalent footing to the “natural sciences” (Naturwissenschaften). This idea never really took hold in the English-speaking world. Instead, the social sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science) adopted and imitated the empirical observational and quantitative analytical methods of the natural sciences. In psychology, the only observations that qualified as “scientific” were observations of behavior—to the extreme of B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism, in which mental states were said to be in an unknowable “black box”. Although the influence of strict behaviorism in psychology has waned in the latter half of the 20th century, the ideological commitment to a materialist worldview has not. In the leading paradigms of cognitive psychology or cognitive science (which includes brain sciences, computer modeling, information systems and the like) consciousenss is still treated as something to be explained (i.e. explained away) in the supposesdly more “real” terms of “neural nets”, “brain circuits” and the like.

In the latter half of the 19th century a European philosophical movement took a completely different and new approach to the study of consciousness. The German mathematician/philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859 - 1938) originally conceived of his phenomenology as an attempt to rescue philosophy and the quest for absolute knowledge from the “naturalism” and relativism of the newly arising experimental psychology. He criticized the psychophysical method of Wilhelm Wundt and G.T. Fechner as providing only correlations between subjective events and physical events, and ignoring the possibilities of “pre-understanding” of what consciousness was essentially. For Husserl, the abstract truths of mathematics are essences that are grasped by the mind directly, without relative or empirical observation. He proposed phenomenology as the method for directly arriving at essential and universal knowledge about the nature of consciousness and meaning, in part by clarifying the implicit pre-understandings that underlie other psychological approaches.

A core concept of Husserl’s phenomenology of consciousness is intentionality : consciousness is always intentional, always “of” or “about” something, always directed, like an arrow or a mathematical vector, toward some object of meaning. The objects that consciousness intends can be external, or they can be internal aspects of our own experience. Because intentional consciousness is always “constituting” the essential features of the various domains of existence, both external and internal, consciousness has a fundamental “ontological priority”—it is the “supporting ground of reality”. The focus on intention as the fundamental constituting attribute of consciousness is congruent with the emphasis on “set (and setting)” as the prime determinants of altered states, which I shall discuss further below. The ontological primacy of consciousness in Husserl’s phenomenology is consistent with the worldview of the mystics in Eastern and Western traditions as well as the insights coming from profound altered states.

A further innovative contribution to the phenomenology of consciousness was made by the French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 - 1961). In his work, the focus of interest shifts from the subjective mind to the subjective body, or bodily experience (le corps propre). For Merleau-Ponty, perception is an inherently creative, participatory activity between the living body and its world. All subjectivity or consciousness presupposes our inherence in a corporeal world, a world that we perceive as the having depth, intimacy and horizon. The ecophilosopher David Abram has shown, in his work The Spell of the Sensuous, how in many ways Merleau-Ponty’s later thought anticipates the deep ecologists and others who are looking to develop a new conscious awareness of our embeddedness in the world of Nature.

The American philosopher William James (1842 - 1910) approached the psychology of consciousness in his characteristic multifarious manner. He may have been the first person to use the concept of “field” in talking about consciousness: human beings have “fields of consciousness”, which are always complex, -- containing body sensations, sense impressions, memories, thoughts, feelings, desires and “determinations of the will”, in fact “a teeming multiplicity of objects and relations.” He made it clear that his famous “stream of thought” image actually meant not just thoughts, but images, sensations, feelings, etc. He wrote that “the mind is, at every stage, a theater of simultaneous possibilities”. This idea is reminiscent of C. G. Jung’s conception of personality structure consisting of an aggregate of psychic entities or complexes: the persona, the shadow, the ego, the anima, the animus, with the Self forming the superordinate whole that includes all the parts, both conscious and unconscious.

William James explored the paranormal and mystical dimensions of consciousness, that usually lie outside the boundaries of scientific interest. He pursued a life-long interest in the phenomena of sub-liminal consciousness, what he called “exceptional mental states”, including those found in hypnotism, automatisms, such as sleep walking, hysteria, multiple personality, demoniacal possession, witchcraft, degeneration and genius. James’s interest in unusual states of consciousness led him to experiment with nitrous oxide, or “laughing gas” as it was then known, an experience that reinforced his understanding of transrational states of consciousness. He wrote that the conclusion he drew from these early “psychedelic” experiences was “that our normal waking consciousness, rational consciousness as we call it, is but one special type of consciousness, while all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different.”

James wrote the above statement in his The Varieties of Religious Experience, probably his most influential book. In it he explored with great discernment and eloquence the nature and significance of mystical or “conversion” experiences, by which he meant not only a person’s change from one religion to another, but the process of attaining a sense of unity and the sacred dimension of life. In my book The Unfolding Self I adopted James’ empirical, comparative approach to the study of transformative experience — delineating the basic archetypal patterns of psychospiritual transformation.

It is only recently, in re-reading William James’ writings on his philosophy of radical empiricism that I came to realize that this philosophy actually provides the epistemology of choice for the study of altered states of consciousness. James started with the basic assumption of the empirical (which means “experience-based”) approach: all knowledge is derived from experience. Radical empiricism applies this principle inclusively, not exclusively: James writes:

To be radical an empiricism must neither admit into its construction any element that is not directly experienced, nor exclude from them any element that is directly experienced. For such a philosophy, the relations that connect experiences must themselves be experienced relations, and any kind of relation experienced must be accounted as ‘real’ as anything else in the system. (James, 1912/1996, p. 42)

Observations made in objective external reality perceived through our, aided and unaided senses, do not have an ontological priority and do not give “privileged access” to truth or validity. All knowledge must be based on observation, i.e. experience; so far this view coincides with the empiricism of the natural and social sciences. It’s the second statement that is truly radical and that explains why James included religious and paranormal experiences in his investigations. The experiences in modified states of consciousness are currently excluded from materialistic, reductionistic science, as are all kinds of anomalous experiences, such as UFO abductions, near-death experiences, and mystical or paranormal experiences. They need not and should not be excluded in a radical empiricism.

From the perspective of radical empiricism, it is not where or how observations are made that makes a field of study “scientific”, it is what is done with the observations afterwards. Repeated systematic observations from the same observer, and replicating observations from others, is what distinguishes the scientific method from casual or haphazard observations, or those made with intentions other than gathering knowledge. Whereas the ideology of fundamentalist scientism does not permit the objective investigation of subjective experience, the epistemology of radical empiricism posits that it is possible to be objective about subjective experience, using the accepted canons of the scientific method. The methodology of systematic introspection, and phenomenology, are the beginnings of such a more inclusive approach.

In Eastern systems of yoga and meditation, it has long been understood that reliable and replicable observations can be made in the interior landscapes of our experience. The meditative practice of “mindfulness” is exactly an attitude in which objectivity is added to the primary given (or “data”) of the experience. Religious texts describe the characteristic kinds of observations that a practicioner in a particular tradition may expect to make. This is, in essence, no different than a scientific text that describes the kinds of observations a student of biology can expect to make when looking through a microscope.

One of the most exciting consequences of adopting a worldview and epistemology in which no sources of new perceptions and observations will be ignored because of their provenance, leads to the opening up of vast new fields and possibilities of understanding, and a renewed bringing together of spiritual and scientific understandings into an integrated worldview, or sacred science.

In a systems view of humans and universe, a relational view of multi-level interconnectedness, things, objects and persons are temporary nodes, in ever-changing patterned relations with other nodes. All being is interbeing, in Thich Nhat Hanh’s felicitous phrase. Consciousness then is the experiential side, the knowing, feeling, sensing, imaging of relations, the “knowing-with”. It is the subjective, inner, concaveness of the transparent hollow sphere we call the space-time continuum; of which objective, outer, convexity is matter and energy, in their ceaseless transformations. According to Buddhist teachings, the inside of the sphere is empty, void, sunyata – hence no things, objects or persons actually exist. However, through the magic power of projection or maya, we seemingly perceive an objective universe, “out there”, of infinite differentiation and diversity.

The wise elder Thomas Berry, theologian turned evolutionary cosmologist, says that in the evolutionary transformation civilization is now going through, the transition from the cenozoic to the ecozoic era, our perspective on the world will change from seeing and measuring it as a “collection of objects”, to knowing and experiencing it as a “communion of subjects”. In other words, a living systems worldview, in which the conscious communion of living subjects is acknowledged as equally real and valid as the conscious perception of identifiable objects. We don’t need to stop utilizing the powerful methods science has developed for analyzing the complexities and details of our world; we add to them the inner, sensuous, feeling-based, aethestic appreciation of the essential oneness of the ever-transforming web of life.

Oneness and differentiation exist at every level of reality. The ecologists have made us aware of how the diversity of life, biodiversity and its preservation is the core requirement for sustainability. To this, the anthropologists and historians of culture have added the recognition of the importance of preserving cultural diversity – for the unique knowledge system or tradition that each culture has developed. As a psychologist, I would want to add to the celebration of diversity, an acknowledgement of the rich psychic multiplicity of our psychic inner life: we are all multiple personalities, each of us containing a “theater of simultaneous possibilities”. Learning from indigenous cosmologies as well as the spiritual traditions of ancient times, we may well want to return to a recognition of the animistic polytheism of our forebears, recognizing and celebrating the indwelling spiritual intelligences of all inorganic and organic life-forms, as well as of Earth and other planets, Sun and other stars, Milky Way and other galaxies, and Universe. As Buckminster Fuller said, wanting to include the metaphysical as well as physical in his definition, “Universe is everything that we can experience.”

The Centrality of Intention and Question

We have seen how in the phenomenological approach to the understanding of human consciousness, “intentionality” is the central organizing concept. Consciousness is said to always be “about” something; or, we are always “conscious of” something. The “mental status” examination in cases of shock or psychosis, asks whether the patient is oriented in time and space (do you know where you are? what day it is?). We have also noted how psychedelic and other altered states of consciousness can best be understood if one inquires into the “set” (= intention) that preceded or accompanied the catalyst that triggered the movement in consciousness. Carlos Castaneda, in his writings on the principles of Yaqui, or Toltec, sorcery, emphasizes repeatedly, that “intent” is the master key to sorcery; where sorcery may be defined as the intentional use of altered states, such as conscious dreaming, to acquire and exercise psychic power.

Following Michael Harner, I define shamanism as the intentional practice of altered states, called “shamanic journeys”, for healing, problem solving and guidance. In shamanic indigenous healing practices, as in ordinary medicine and psychotherapy, the intention is given by the problem or illness the patient brings to the practicioner. Indeed, it is perhaps too obvious to state, that in any situation, any state of consciousness, inquiring into the intention the person is holding, is a way of directing awareness to the experiencing subject or self, the starting point, the original orientation. In divination, which may be defined as the intentional use of the enhanced perception of altered states ( and sometimes divinatory tools such as cards or runes) to acquire knowledge and spiritual guidance from the divine of spirit world, conscious intention again provides the master key.

Intention, or “interest”, as William James phrased it, controls the selective function of attention, which in turn determines what it is we perceive or become aware of. We may express these relations as follows:

intention -> attention -> awareness

If our attention –perception is not guided by our conscious intention or interest, then it will be captured, or captivated, by whatever attractive, intense, insistent, prominent stimulus patterns present themselves to our sensorium.

Through my work with divination practices, both in the context of psychotherapy, and in the context of shamanic rituals using expanded states of consciousness, I have come to understand that the basic formula for divination is that of asking questions and receiving answers. Even when a mantic procedure, such as the I Ching, or casting runes, or laying out Tarot cards is used, inherent in the procedure is a question posed and an answer received (which may need to be interpreted). Divination in the context of healing aims at finding the origin or source of the illness – which in traditional societies may be attributed to sorcery in as many as 50% of illnesses. In Western medicine this process is called seeking a diagnosis, the origin and nature of the infection or injury. The primary difference between the indigenous shamanic approach in healing divination and the Western medical approach, is that traditional divination involves an induced altered state of consciousness, and asking questions of the practicioner’s tutelary spirits; whereas the Western approach involves highly focussed and detailed observations, supplemented by specialized instruments, in the ordinary waking state of conciousness.

The biologist Rupert Sheldrake has pointed out that the process of divination to obtain knowledge -- of the world, the environment, anything concealed or not understood, possible future outcomes – is a questioning process exactly analogous to the scientific experiment in Western science. The experiment is a precisely controlled situation, where detailed observations can be made to answer questions we are posing to Nature, the world, the environment, etc.

One can see then that intention and question are like two sides of the same coin, two equivalent ways of guiding our attention and perception, in both ordinary and non-ordinary states of consciousness. For example, if I am wanting to heal the effects of a childhood trauma, whether through shamanic soul retrieval work, or therapeutic regression, I can state my intention and say: “I want to (am interested, or aiming to) heal the effects of this trauma”; or, I can ask: “How can I heal (and integrate) the effects of this trauma?” There is a dynamic (yang) and receptive (yin) polarity here: the intention is focussed, directional, searching, seeking; the question (any question) is a basic gesture of receptivity and opening. If I ask a question of someone, I am placing myself in receptive mode to hear their answer. We can present the differences in these two ways of deploying attention by the following analogies:


Intention Question
psychic polarity dynamic receptive
process analogies hunting, tracking gathering, collecting
instrumental analogies arrow basket
mathematical analogies vector attractor


Levels of Consciousness in Shamanistic Cosmology and Living Systems Universe

Spiritual seekers and yogic meditators have described a universe of many levels of of reality and consciousness, to which we can gain access through various practices of consciousness expansion, though in ordinary life we are rarely, if ever, aware of these other “higher” dimensions. The Sufis say we are like a man who has a seven-story mansion, but who lives only on the ground floor, the most polluted, cluttered and unattractive parts of his mansion; to the point where he has completely forgotten that the other, grander rooms even exist, much less how to get there. The techniques of finding access again to these higher realms, is therefore a kind of memory exercise – often referred to in the literature as “recollection”, or “remembrance”.

We may formulate the relationship between states of consciousness and levels, planes, or worlds of consciousness as follows: in the ordinary waking state of consciousness, our awareness and identity is generally focussed on the level of ordinary, consensus reality. In meditative states, some dreams, expansive psychedelic states, mystical and visionary states, we may find ourselves seemingly in other kinds of reality altogether, other realms, other worlds. These other realms are then known to always exist, and we always to have potential access to them. Spiritual and shamanic practices are designed to intentionally allow us to move into and through these other realms, in which we can find sources of healing or spiritual knowledge, conveyed to us by spiritual teachers, elders, ancestors, angels, spirit animals or spirit guides. We call such practices of intentional access divination, as discussed above.

The level of “ordinary reality” is often called the physical or material plane, which implies the other planes are metaphysical or non-material (e.g. subtle, etheric). This ordinary, ground-floor level is also referred to as the time-space world, implying that in the other levels the laws of time and space as we know them don’t apply, or are different. This notion is readily verifiable when we recall that in dream states we can seemingly visit with, talk with, interact with, a person known to us, say a grandmother, who objectively lives thousands of miles away, or indeed may even be dead, and yet we traverse no space, and take no time, to get there. We also do not question the reality of a contact with a “dead” person. This malleability of the time-space framework is the reason why divination can reveal knowledge of probable futures, called “visions” (which are not “predictions”, as the dictionary definition of divination erroneously has it).

There have been numerous mappings of the different realms and levels of consciousness in the spiritual, meditative, and esoteric traditions of the world, and to compare and coordinate them all is a task far beyond my capability and the space limitations of this essay. I will briefly describe here, for illustrative purposes, (1) the traditional shamanistic cosmology; (2) a version of the seven-level map commonly found in the European and Asian esoteric, perennial and theosophical traditions; and (3) three of the many possible dimensional mappings that can be identified in a living systems worldview .

Those who have embarked on a serious psychospiritual practice of consciousness exploration using shamanic and yogic technologies, who are willing to trust their own experience more than the received views and concepts they have taken on faith, tend to find themselves gradually awakening to a vastly expanded and different worldview. I should point out however that many features of the traditional and newly revived shamanic-animistic worldview appear to be quite compatible with the most recent, growing edge theories of post-modern science. There is not the space here to enter into a discussion of these convergences in any detail. I will merely mention the particular relevance of ecology and living systems theory, as described for example in Fritjof Capra’s book The Web of Life; the Gaia theory of James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis; Rupert Sheldrake’s theories of morphogenesis; David Bohm’s “holomovement” interpretation of quantum theory; the integrative and synergetic cosmology of Buckminster Fuller; and the evolutionary cosmology articulated by Brian Swimme, Thomas Berry and others.

There is one fundamental commonality among the shamanic, Asian meditative, esoteric and living living systems worldview, and that is in their conception of the fundamental reality of the universe. The fundamental reality of the universe, according to the most ancient, and the most recent, post-modern formulations, is a continuum, a unitive field or fabric or process, of both energy and consciousness, that is beyond time, space and all forms, and yet somehow mysteriously within them; simultaneously transcendent and immanent. In traditional Asian religions, this unitive field is variously referred to as Tao, or Atman-Brahman, or Tantra (meaning “web” or “fabric”) or the “jewelled net of Indra.” Some Native North Americans refer to it as Wakan-Tanka, the all-pervading Creator Spirit. In the traditional Anglo-Saxon religion of the British Isles it was called the Wyrd, an invisible network of magical forces. In theistic religions like Christianity, this oneness corresponds to what is called the “Godhead”, a spiritual Beingness beyond the personal deity. In esoteric writings it is variously called The One, Absolute Beingness, the All That Is. In the systems language of post-modern science it is seen as an infinitely complex, multi-level system of interrelationships, or “web of life.”
(1) Shamanistic Cosmology. Worldwide, shamanic practicioners speak of a three-fold division of upper, middle and lower worlds. The names reflect the primary movement of the shamanic traveller, when engaged in divinatory practice. A journey to the Lower World, initiated by intention, and energized by psychoactive plants or rhythmic drumming, involves a downward movement in consciousness, into a cave, or opening, or tunnel – from which one emerges after a time to track the objects of one’s quest. Lower World journeys seem to be especially relevant for problems of healing, as if the traveller were actually “going down” into the material microcosm of the earth body. Upper World journeys involve ascent – through flying, soaring, climbing a World Tree or axis – and visiting light, airy worlds, with expansive vistas and luminous structures. These kinds of journeys may be involved when the shaman wishes to look ahead, “see” hidden realities, or envision future probabilities. In Middle World journeys, the movement is straight across, but may involve all kinds of strange, weird, magical, unusual places and beings – such as enchanted forests, magical castles, wastelands and wilderness. The characteristics of upper, middle and lower world journeys, as reflected in myths and fairy tales, as well as shamanic accounts, are described in more detail in the chapter on “Journeys to the Place of Vision and Power”, in my book The Unfolding Self.

Whereas the cosmography of three worlds is most often found, there are also mythic-shamanic traditions of five, or seven, nine or more worlds, often arrayed around a central World Tree or Axis Mundi. In the Nordic-Germanic mythic worldview, there are nine worlds arranged on the World Axis-Tree Yggdrasil. In the center is Midgard, the familiar ordinary world of humans, animals, and Earthly life; pathways go from this world to all the other worlds, which knowledge-seeking shamans can learn to find and travel. There are two worlds on the central axis above the Middle Earth realm: the World of Elves, who are light, airy spirits, and the World of the Aesir Sky Gods. Two worlds are vertically below Midgard: the World of Dwarves, or Dark Elves, the spirits of stones and minerals, and the world of Hel, the death goddess. Then there are four other worlds, in the same horizontal plane as Midgard, in the four directions: the World of Giants in the East and the World of Vanir Earth Deities in the West; in the North and South, two uninhabited worlds, of pure ice and pure fire respectively. I describe both ecological and mythic symbolic meanings associated with these nine worlds in my book on the Earth-Wisdom mythology of the Nordic-Germanic people, The Well of Remembrance. In myth and folklore of the European people, there is sometimes only one name for all the non-ordinary, nonmaterial realms that we humans may come across: they are called “Spirit World”, “Otherworld”, of “Faery World”.

(2) In esoteric and thesosophical traditions we usually hear of seven levels of consciousness, differing in vibratory rate or density, with the physical-material as the “lowest” or densest. We have a series of bodies, which are the bodies we occupy in the corresponding realm or world. Just as the physical body is the body we move around in while in the time-space physical world, the astral body is our body for functioning in the astral world or realm. Leaving aside for the moment the question of the different terms and names used for the different levels or realms, in the experiences of contemporary neo-shamanic practicioners, with or without mind-moving substances, experiences of visiting other worlds are quite common. Also, of course, they are accessible to us in dream states, and in meditative states. Alternatively, the person may feel that the veils, barriers or screens between worlds can become transparent or porous, so one can see and be in both the ordinary and the spirit world at the same time. In William Blake’s famous lines, “if the doors of perception were cleansed, everything would appear as it is – infinite”.

The mappings of different levels of consciousness or worlds, are based on accumulated observations by thousands of explorers and elders in the various spiritual traditions. In other words they are empirically based, just like maps of an unknown geographical area are based on accumulated observations; these maps then become available to be used by subsequent explorers. An individual explorer, using yogic, shamanic or meditative methods of journeying in consciousness, could, in theory, verify the accuracy of the mappings for him or her self. In practice, when we begin our explorations, we are not usually able to identify the particular worlds we are in. The dreamer, for example, may realize he is in a different world, an “otherworld”, but not be able to say whether it was the “astral” or some other realm. So, if we want to maintain a stance of radical empiricism, we can accept the maps given by the different traditions as provisional, to be verified by our others’ observations. The maps, as we know, are not the territory.

In that spirit, I present here a mapping of the seven major levels of consciousness, as I was taught them by my teachers, and as I continue to hold them, as a working hypothesis. The most useful analogy to help understand the differences between the levels, is, to my mind, the concept of frequency or vibratory rate, as in music theory. The different bodies or levels, differ in vibratory rate, like the tones of a scale or chord: that is why they can co-exist, co-incide, in the same place at the same time, without interference.

The seven/eight note structure of the octave, is also consistently found in mappings of the different levels of consciousness, including G. I. Gurdjieff’s formulation of the Law of Seven as one of the fundamental laws of the universe. It is not inconsistent with this principle that any given yogic or meditative practice may work primarily, or in the beginning stages, with two or three or five levels.

So, in ascending order of frequency rate, we have: the physical-material body and realm (in the Indian traditions this is called the “body/sheath of food” – annamayakosha); next, the perceptual or etheric body and realm; the emotional or astral body and realm (some combine the perceptual and emotional, calling it “psychic”); and the mental or noetic body and realm. These four together make up the personality-systems; they are subject to conditioning, and all the dualities and conflicts that we know at the physical body level. Above the mental, in vibratory rate, are the transpersonal, unobstructed dimensions, or “heavens”, in which there are individual differences, like different colors in a painting, or tones in a symphony, but no conflicts, dualities or antagonisms. The first transpersonal level is that of soul, called anandamayakosha, (“body/sheath of joy”), in the Indian tradition. In the writings of the esoteric teacher Rudolf Steiner, the intermediate personality levels are not called “bodies”, but levels of soul: in descending order, soul of understanding, soul of feeling, and soul of perception. If the physical is the DO of an ascending octave, the level of soul would be SOL, which is also the Latin word for “Sun”. Some alchemical texts describe the soul, when “seen” with clairvoyant vision, as a golden, sun-colored sphere.

Continuing with the upper part of the vibratory octave, we have, above the level of soul: the angelic or celestial realm, which corresponds in the Buddhist teachings to the mandala realm of the Dhyani Buddhas; the archetypal or cosmic, or realm of First Differentiation, or primordial Yin-Yang; and, as the upper DO of the octave, Formless Form, Spirit, Self or Atman, which is always in perfect union with the Macrocosmic Oneness (Atman=Brahman). The particular names used here for the inner and higher frequency dimensions, have no particular importance. Obviously, other languages have different names. What is important, is that once we accept the existence of these higher worlds, our participation in them, and our relationships with beings, usually called “spirits”, in these other worlds, a whole new focus on spiritual practices which provide us with access to these worlds, for greater knowledge, understanding, insight, creative inspiration, healing and problem-solving.

(3) Levels of consciousness in a living systems universe. Modern science is only slowly moving towards acceptance of an ecological or systems cosmology. Even in such a worldview, much less in conventional materialist science, the idea of subtle dimensions, differing in vibratory rate, has little credibility, mostly because there is no widely accepted way of measuring or quantifying such subtle levels of energy and matter. (Some mathematical-physical accounts of other dimensions have been written, for example in the work of William Tiller). In one important respect however, the sytems worldview is congruent with traditional esoteric or shamanistic traditions – and that is the notion of levels, or scales. A systems universe consists of a series of whole systems (also called holons) arranged in ordered series, in such a way that the parts of a whole at one level, become wholes at the scalar level “below” ; and are themselves parts of wholes at the scalar level “above”.

This layering of levels of complex ordering, has been called by some a hierarchical principle, since the holons at the higher levels include the holons at the lower level as parts. However, the word “hierarchy” refers to systems of social organization in human collectives, -- ecclesiastical, military and corporate – in which “command, control and communication” (the military’s favorite phraseology) flows from the top down, one way only. Systems of natural order, as found in nature, are quite different, and have for this reason been called “nested hierarchies” or “holarchies”. They are structural ordering principles of containment and interdependence. For example, the body or organism is a holarchy containing a dozen or so organ systems functioning as interdependent parts, each of which is itself a holarchy of cellular components. There is really no similarity, or even analogy, with a conventional hierarchy: the body does not issue commands to the organs, and does not control them; it contains them.

We may look then, to the holarchical levels of a living systems universe for means to map out inner journeys or explorations in consciousness. As stated above, consciousness is the experiential side, the knowing, feeling, sensing, imaging of relations, the “knowing-with”. It is the subjective, inner, concaveness of the space-time continuum; of which objective, outer, convexity is matter and energy, in their ceaseless transformations. Many different systemic ordering scales, in the physical universe, have been identified and named. I will select three for consideration, and use the octave principle here too to delineate the stages, although sometimes more and sometimes fewer levels have been identified by various writers. At each level, there is a characteristic aggregation of energy and matter; and consciousness is what Teilhard de Chardin called the “within” of things. Thus atoms, molecules, cells, stones, plants, animals, rivers, oceans, planets, galaxies… each have their “within”, their subjectivity, their spiritual essence, or even “gods”.

3.1 Humans-in-Universe. As the first example let us take the ascending holarchical octave series that goes from the individual human being to the whole Universe:

body-organism of the human animal;
the kingdom of all animal species;
the biosphere, which includes all five kingdoms of organic life;
the Earth, Gaia, which includes the biospher and all inorganic material systems, as well as oceans and athmosphere;
the solar system, including Sun and all the planets;
the Milky Way galaxy, with its ten billion stars;
the cluster of several thousand galaxies of which the Milky Way is one – a cluster quaintly referred to by astronomers as the “local group”; and
Universe – all galaxies and other cosmic formations.
One can note that within each step of the holarchy series, a further octave series of steps can be identified. For example, to get from the individual body-organism to all animals, evolutionary taxonomy tells us of the following seven stages: the species homo sapiens; the genus homo; the family hominidiae; the order primata; the class mammalia; the phylum chordata; and the kingdom animalia.

People in altered states using shamanic or entheogenic practices, have reported having thoughts, feelings and perceptions, i.e. consciousness contents, at any of those levels. Once the Gaia theory was put forward on purely scientific grounds, spokespersons from traditional societies as well as esotericists immediately pointed out the similarity to ancient notions of “Earth Mother” or Anima Mundi, a conscious, sentient, spiritual being that is the indwelling spirit of the Earth. Likewise, solar deities have been a part of many religious traditions, including early Christianity. “Cosmic Consciousness”, a field of consciousness expanded to the outer limits of the known universe, has often been identified and described in the writings of mystics. In their book The Universe Story, Brian Swimme and Thomas Berry have shown in detail how at each stage of the evolving universe, humans can not only know about that stage through external information, but can experience inwardly what it means to be a part of those evolving wholes; for example, what it means to be part of the story of star-formation.

3.2 The Microcosmic Descent. Here also, the physical and life sciences have identified and described in great detail the organization of matter and energy at each level. The primary difference of a systems view from the conventional physical science approach, is that in a systems view, there is no reductionism to the physics level as the privileged, “ultimate” science. So starting again with the body the descending octave series goes:
organism-body of the human animal;
organ systems of the body – a level to which it is relatively easy for anyone to expand awareness, as we do for example, in relaxation and healing meditation practices;
cells in their tissue clusters – cellular consciousness, perhaps because cells float in a fluid matrix, tends to be experienced as oceanic;
organelles, the sub-components of cells, which are probably the evolutionary descendants of monera (bacteria) that have been incorporated into cells by endosymbiosis, according to the microbiologist Lynn Margolis;
molecular level – an infinite web of interconnectedness, containing the DNA genetic code for all life forms, but extending into inorganic and elemental matter as well;
the atomic level;
the level of sub-atomic particles such as electrons, protons, quarks and the rest; and
the level of pure, photonic, mass-less energy or vibration.
Assuming that subjective, potentially conscious perception and knowledge is possible at each level, allows us to understand seemingly miraculous healings that have been reported as occuring without any physiological or pharmcological intervention: through healers laying on hands, transmitting energy through crystals and vibrational chants, through homeopathic dilutions in which no single molecule of the original substance is left, or through seeing, in expanded states of perception, into the interior energetic structure of the patient’s body. An example of how scientific understanding may be advanced and enhanced by conscious attunement to the cellular and molecular levels is given in the work of Jeremy Narby, author of The Cosmic Serpent, a book on serpent imagery in South American ayahuasca shamans. Narby brought geneticists and molecular biologists to take ayahuasca with traditional shamans; they would ask specific questions related to their field of research, and obtain useful answers (Narby, 2002). The ayahuasca apparently allowed these scientists to focus their perception and attention at the cellular and molecular levels, without resorting to electron microscope, or other instrumentation used in Western science.

3.3 Humans-in-Habitats. This is a holarchy series dealt with in the sciences of human ecology, anthropology and sociology. Starting here too, with the DO of the ascending octave :
the human body, in its immediate habitat of clothing; then,
the family, in its house/home habitat; then
the extended family or clan, in a cluster of houses; then
the community, perhaps of several hundred families, living in a village;
the tribe or population in a bioregion or urban environment;
the society, all speaking the same language, inhabiting a country or nation;
the multi-cultural, multi-lingual, multi-ethnic confederation or conglomeration inhabiting a whole continent ;
the whole of humanity on Earth, the “global village”, as the upper DO.
The notion that there exist collective forms of consciousness, beyond the individual self, is of course not new in psychology. In family systems therapy, for example, the focus of therapeutic attention is the relationship network of all the family members; the notion that certain beliefs, attitudes, characteristics may be shared by a whole clan or community, is also not new. C.G. Jung coined the concept of “collective unconscious”, meaning images, symbols and archetypes shared by all of humanity; later theoretical development by his students, identified a layer of “cultural unconscious” between the personal and the collective. This makes it clear that the “collective unconscious” is really the system of consciousness that includes all human beings – what Robert Lifton has called the “species self”. It also makes it clear that beyond the layer of collective human species consciousness (a term I prefer to “unconscious”, since many of these contents are not unconscious at all), are forms of consciousness shared by all primates, all mammals, all animals, all life on Earth, even the cosmos. Different series of holarchical systems branch off from every node point in the web of life.

Since we are part of the unified system of interdependence, just like every other being, we can never actually be outside of it, as a detached “objective” observer. But since the unified field is energy, we are energetically connected to every other form and being in the universe. And since the field is also consciousness, this enables us, as human beings, to attune with, identify with, and communicate with any and every other life-form, object or being in the universe, from the macrocosmic to the microscopic.
If, as shamanistic and spiritual teachings agree, we humans are multidimensional beings, living in a multidimensional universe, then there are profound implications for revolutionary changes in our perspectives on the world. The shamanistic animistic worldview, is although older historically, larger and more inclusive than mechanistic-materialistic worldview dominant in the modern world. In the modern worldview, only the material time-space world of measurable quantities is accorded reality status; intuitive, imagistic, spiritual impulses and needs are marginalized to lesser ontological status.

In the worldview of indigenous people everywhere, the worlds we know from dreams and visions, worlds inhabited by gods and spirits, including our own deceased ancestors, are accorded recognition of equal reality. Our disconnection from the recognition and honoring of the vastness of spiritual realms enclosing and permeating this physical world, amounts to a staggering gesture of self-crippling on the part of Western techno-industrial civilization. This opens up almost inconceivable possibilities of solving our problems and bringing about a truly sustainable civilization, infused with spiritual values.




References
Abram, David. The Spell of the Sensuous - Perception and Language in a More-than-Human World. New York: Pantheon Books, 1996.


Harner, Michael. The Way of the Shaman. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980.


James, William. 1890/1952. Principles of Psychology. Chicago: Great Books of the Western World. Encyclopedia Britannica.


James, William. 1901/1958. Varieties of Religious Experience. New York: New American Library.


James, William. 1912/1996. Essays in Radical Empiricism. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.


Metzner, Ralph. The Unfolding Self - Varieties of Transformative Experience. Novato, CA: Origin Press, 1998.


Metzner, Ralph . The Well of Remembrance – Rediscovering the Earth Wisdom Mythology of Northern Europe. Boston: Shambhala, 1994.

Metzner, Ralph. Green Psychology - Transforming Our Relationship to the Earth.
Rochester, VT: Park Street Press, 1999.

Narby, Jeremy. The Cosmic Serpent – DNA and the Origins of Knowledge. New York: Random House, 1998.

Narby, Jeremy. “Shamans and Scientists”. in Hallucinogens – A Reader. Ed. Charles Grob. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher / Putnam. 2002.

Website: www.greenearthfound.org

A shorter version of this essay is to appear in a collection of essays on the “Primacy of Consciousness”, edited by Trish Pheiffer and John Mack.
http://greenearthfound.org/write/expanding.html